Platos Criticism of Democracy Essay - 1697 Words

Platos Criticism of Democracy Do not be angry with me for speaking the truth; no man will survive who genuinely opposes you or any other crowd and prevents the occurrence of many unjust and illegal happenings in the city. A man who really fights for justice must lead a private, not a public, life if he is to survive for even a short time. (Apology 31e-32a) These are the words of Socrates, who spoke before the Athenian jury in the trial that would, ultimately, condemn him to his death. Through works such as the Apology and The Republic, we can see Plato’s distaste of the concept of democracy. Why does he consider democracy to be so flawed? Let us look through his own eyes and see what his individual criticisms are, and determine†¦show more content†¦So democracy is a system of government wherein the people elect their rulers; in the case of Athens, it was, more or less, a direct democracy, where all male citizens voted in an assembly and decided by majority rule (elected officials were chosen by allotment). Why would this be a bad thing? Is it not better than dictatorships or oligarchies, where anywhere from one man to a small group of elites have power over all? Why exactly would a government that has its decisions made by the very people it represents be considered something worthy of criticism? This is where we get into the meat of the argument. Take note that there might be some consideration as to whether or not, particularly with regard to the Socratic dialogues, the criticism of democracy’s properties originated from Socrates or Plato. But with regards to this essay, such a consideration is irrelevant, as it is not incorrect to say that Plato did indeed have some problems with democracy, especially with regard to the Athenian model. The crux of this argument will focus on three of Plato’s works: Gorgias, Apology, and The Republic. In Gorgias, named for the Sicilian sophist and rhetorician featured in the dialogue, Socrates speaks with Gorgias concerning the nature of rhetoric as compared with philosophy; also, he speaks with Gorgias’s pupil Polus concerning the tyrant and how he truly is the most unhappiest of all, despite any ill-gotten gains they may have attained. Socrates’ distaste –Show MoreRelatedPlatos Criticism of Democracy Essay897 Words   |  4 PagesPlatos Criticism of Democracy Plato, having defined his perfect society, now seeks to compare contemporary imperfect societies with his ideal standard. He initially criticises the imperfect society as a whole, before leading onto a criticism of any given individual within that society; the imperfect character. He has already dealt with the Oligarchic society and character and now moves onto Democracy and the democratic character. Plato states that the Oligarchy, where the ultimate desireRead MoreDo Not Be Angry With Me For Speaking Th1627 Words   |  7 PagesRepublic, we can see Plato’s distaste of the concept of democracy. Why does he consider democracy to be so flawed? Let us look through his own eyes and see what his individual criticisms are, and determine if the very concept of democracy is as flawed as he believes it to be. One of the contemporary definitions of democracy today is as follows: â€Å"Government by the people, exercised either directly or through elected representatives; Rule by the majority† (â€Å"Democracy† Def.1,4). Democracy, as a form of governmentRead MorePlato s Republic : A Political Leader Is The Greatest Way Have A Successful Political Rule997 Words   |  4 Pagesbook one of Plato’s Republic, Socrates states that â€Å"no one, in any position of rule, to the extent that he is a ruler, considers or enjoins what is advantageous for himself, but what is advantageous for his subject - that on which he practices his craft.† According to Plato, treating political rule as a craft with master craftsmen in power is the greatest way have a successful political rule. This idea is pessimistic when viewed in terms of a democratic society, as a true democracy places a valueRead MorePlato Was An Ancient Greek Philosopher Essay1698 Words   |  7 Pagesexplains t his in his Seventh Letter, and tells of after the revolution, the government put in charge, being friends and family of his, called on him to join them. He believed they would turn their unjust city just however, this was not the case and in Plato’s words ‘I saw that these men make the former constitution seem like a golden age by comparison’ This new power sought to involve Socrates in their unholy expeditions, irrespective of whether or not he wished it, this lead to Socrates putting himselfRead MorePlatos The Republic1054 Words   |  4 Pages In Plato’s The Republic, the theory of appointing a ruling class is a major aspect in his political theory of a just state. As communicated through Socrates, Plato believed in the appointment of only a few citizens of the just city that possess a soul that craves all truth, knowledge, wisdom, and through proper education are competent enough to rule the just state and to decide on legislative policies. In my paper, I will be arguing against Plato’s political theory of who is best fit to be chosenRead MorePower, Authority And Power And The Views Of The State1388 Words   |  6 Pagespolitical theories of the state that were very different. The essay will look to cover their theories as well as definitions, strengths and weaknesses on democracy, authority and power and the views of JS Mill and Plato, giving their thoughts, ideas and styles. The researcher will also apply these definitions of authority and democracy to both Mill’s and Plato’s theories of th e state. Heywood tells us that authority is, in the broadest sense of the word, a form of power which can be thought of as ‘legitimateRead MoreAnalysis Of Gorgias Encomium Of Helen, Isocrates, And Plato s Gorgias1316 Words   |  6 Pagesphilosophical works, I will provide the basic understanding of the importance of the development of rhetoric and how it’s foundation has set the precedent for the future. In this paper I intend to explore, Gorgias Encomium of Helen, Isocrates, and Plato’s Gorgias, to provide evidence that there is an exigence in the understanding of rhetoric. It is necessary for understanding rhetoric in order to understand rhetoric’s greater implications on today’s society in comparison to ancient Greece. InventionRead MoreEssay on Platos Republic981 Words   |  4 PagesPlatos Republic Plato, one of the most ingenious and powerful thinkers in Western philosophy, born around 425 B.C. Plato investigated a wide range of topics. Dominant among his ideas is an immense discourse called The Republic. The main focus of Plato is a perfect society. He outlines a utopian society, out of his disapproval for the tension of political life. Plato lived through the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), in which much of Greece was devastated. This created poverty and political confusionRead MoreAnalysis Of Encomium Of Helen, Dissoi Logoi, And Plato s Gorgias1541 Words   |  7 Pagesphilosophical works, I will provide the basic understanding of the importance of the development of rhetoric and how it’s foundation has set the precedent for the future. In this paper I intend to explore, Gorgias Encomium of Helen, Dissoi Logoi, and Plato’s Gorgias, to provide evidence that there is an exigence in the understanding of rhetoric. It is vital and necessary to understand rhetoric , so that we can understand rhetoric’s greater implications on today’s society. Invention of rhetoric, a contributorRead Moreâ€Å"A Truly Just City?† Essay701 Words   |  3 Pagesjustified way of governing a city. Fundamentally, the rulers are driven by specific appetites and virtues, that develop a cycle of ruling between the stages of aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and eventually a tyranny. This structural chain, is significant in demonstrating the center of Plato’s argument, this it is always better to be just than unjust. Socrates’ main backbone to this fictional city is the importance of education. In order too be truly just, you are to pursue what

Cell Phones Are Imposing Negative Consequences On Our Lives

Mobile phones have rapidly encroached themselves on Canadian lives. Almost every adult has a cell phone and numerous children too, although I cannot speak for everyone, I would assert that cell phones are imposing negative consequences on our lives. Allow me a moment to share my views on cell phones with you. Face to face meetings assist in creating engaging conversations with friends, family, coworkers and even strangers. Being able to see expressions, read body language, and the ability to hear tone leads me to understand the true meaning of words. Recently, my son was to go away to school, yet sadly the loan for school was denied. When I asked my son how he was dealing with this setback, he simply replied, â€Å"I’m okay†. I could see the expression on his face, the slump in his shoulders and the sadness in his voice to know he was definitely not okay. Electronic exchanges cannot convey emotions and underlying messages. What you say and what you really mean is often not the same thing. I may have mistakenly thought he was indeed okay if we would have texted our conversation. I need to know my child’s true feelings. When my kids were little play time used to suggest time spent together. My children and I had played with traditional toys, such as trucks and dolls. That type of play naturally lead into conversations as they created stories with their toys. Our family bond and communication improved during play. I gaze around now and see how playtime and bonding overShow MoreRelatedDisposable Society1603 Words   |  7 PagesHeather McCoy SOC 247 Professor Eck Research Proposal Our Disposable Society As Americans, we are privileged to many luxuries. Not every country allows its citizens to start their own businesses or provides the education it takes to run a company. Our free market system allows for many different goods and services to compete fairly for peoples dollars. 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Nokia Corporation has published its consolidated financial statements in euro for periods beginning on or after January 1,Read MoreAdvanced Placement Microeconomics23462 Words   |  94 PagesPersonal Application Businessmen need an understanding of economy Problems are examined from social rather than personal viewpoint Economic Methodology POLICIES Policy economics is concerned with controlling or influencing economic behavior or its consequences. THEORETICAL ECONOMICS Theoretical economics involves generalizing about economic behavior. THEORIES FACTS Developing hypotheses which are Gathering facts and testing hypotheses then tested against facts against the facts to validate theoriesRead MoreStandardization Adaptation15058 Words   |  61 Pagesstandardization and adaptation Purpose: Compare two strategies, standardization and adaptation, to show how companies manage cultural differences. Method: Our research method is a descriptive one. Then, we collect data from secondary sources such as the books, articles, journals and studies. Then, we judge essential to gather primary data to answer our purpose. In this way, we do one qualitative personal interview with the international marketing director of Agatha and one email interview with its communicationRead MoreHbr When Your Core Business Is Dying74686 Words   |  299 Pagespart r sting Inve gy to ma ough †¢ y thr ener s nerg llion able ing e f mi elop ntries. Dev cou ds o d renew †¢ ndre an in 26 g hu rnative ply. y i tt i n nerg mm y to alte rsify sup y wn e †¢ Co uall e ur o fficienc n o div an gies t de o e e ma sing our ener , hav a 1992 by incre ce †¢ Sin further go 4%. by 2 n: Take eps g St o brin vron ear t Che nay billio CHEVRON is a registered trademark of Chevron Corporation The CHEVRON HALLMARK and HUMAN ENERGY are trademarks of Chevron Corporation  ©2006

Repetition in Hemingway’s Short Story Cat in the Rain free essay sample

Repetition in Hemingway’s short story Cat in the Rain Ernest Hemingway was one of the greatest American novelists and short-story writers of the 20th century. He cleaned up American prose and made it just simplier and down to earth. At that time this was a particular type of modernism in America. Typical for Hemingway’s prose writing was also the girlish aspect, it was more dark, the meaningless world, that nothing makes sense. In this context Hemingway had the opinion that people think in simple terms and therefore that they think in repetitions. Hemingway also thought in repetitions. To make this clearer, I’m going to show you Hemingway’s use of repetitions in one of his famous works, Cat in the Rain . But first the short story will be summarized in a briefly way. Despite the fact that the short story Cat in the Rain covers only a few minutes, we can get a sufficient insight into the married life of an American couple as the following summary will show. We will write a custom essay sample on Repetition in Hemingway’s Short Story Cat in the Rain or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The short story Cat in the Rain is about an American couple that spends their holidays in a hotel in Italy. It is a rainy day and for that reason the two people called â€Å"the Americans† have to stay in their room. While the woman is looking out of the window, she sees a cat in the rain which she definitely wants to protect. When she goes out of the hotel, she passes the old Italian hotel-owner who seems to do everything to please her. As the American woman reaches the yard to fetch the kitty, it already has disappeared. After returning to the hotel room, she starts talking to her husband George, who is lying in bed and reading all the time, about how much she wants to have a cat and a lot more things like longer hair, her own silver to eat with or candles, but her husband only seems to be annoyed and not interested at all by his wife’s moment of distress so that he wants an end to this conversation. At the end of the short story there is a knock on the door and the maid stands there holding a big tortoise-shell-cat in her hands. It is a present from the hotel-owner for the American woman. The greater part of Cat in the Rain is written in a dramatic mode presented as a dialogue (scenic presentation). When we read Hemingway’s short story we don’t know anything about the couples` background or what their every-day-life is like, but this scene makes sure that they have martial problems and that everything between them has become routine, which is best shown by the huge number of repetitions in the text. The man is reading all the time and he is always lying on the bed as it is shown in line 25 â€Å"the husband went on reading, lying propped up with the two pillows at the foot of the bed†, lines 66-67 â€Å"George was on the bed reading†, line 70 â€Å"resting his eyes from reading†, line 76 â€Å"George was reading again†, line 95 â€Å"George said from the bed†, line 100 â€Å"he was reading again† and in line 106 â€Å"George was not listening. He was reading his book. † In contrast his wife is either standing or she is always moving from one place to another what we can see in line 17 â€Å"The American wife stood at the window looking out. , line 21 †I’m going down†, line 28 â€Å"The wife went downstairs†, line 29 â€Å"as she passed the office†, line 38 â€Å"she opened the door and looked out†, line 41 â€Å"As she stood in the doorway†, lines 45-46 â€Å"she walked along the gravel path†, line 62 â€Å"As the American girl passed the office†, lines 65-66 â€Å"She went on up the stairs. She opened the door of the room. †, line 77 â€Å"She went over and sat in front of the mirror of the dressing table†, and in line 90 â€Å"She laid the mirror down and went over the window and looked out. †. If we compare this two people, we can find out that the husband is the passive and the wife the active part in this relationship. As a result it seems that the American woman really wants something to be changed; while it seems as if the man doesn’t want any change at all.

John Lennon Essay Paper Example For Students

John Lennon Essay Paper John LennonJohn Lennon was a great song writer and musician. He played the rhythmguitar, the piano, and sang. He was in the most popular group in the history ofrock music. In 1959, John founded this group, called The Beatles. The original Beatles were John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison,and Pete Best. Brian Epstein became the manager of the Beatles in 1961. Epstein mademany changes in the group. John rebelled and did not want to package andclean up the group in order to please fans. These changes were made anywaydespite Johns protests. The Beatles had signed a contract with EMI records and were beginning torecord with them. On August 16, 1962, Pete Best, the drummer was suddenly firedfrom the group. Ringo Starr was inducted into the Beatles two days after Bestwas fired. John Lennon and Paul McCartney shared the credit of songs written byeither one of them. The credit simply read Lennon-McCartney. The two as songwriters were a perfect mix. John had a quick artistic sense and he was easilyexcited by new challenges, he projected a sarcastic and rebellious tough-guypersonality, who was actually a vulnerable romantic. While Paul projected thesweet image and who was underneath an injured, controlling, perfectionist. By 1964, The Beatles arrived at JFK Airport. They were greeted withmass hysteria. Two days later, more than 73 million people watched them performlive on the Ed Sullivan Show. Four weeks later, The Beatles held the top fivemusic singles in America at the same time. John was influenced by many things in 1965-1966 such as psychedelia,marijuana, and Bob Dylan. Many felt that these years were the best song writingyears of John Lennons life. 1966The Beatles had been touring for over four years, and they,especially John were tired of it. John wanted to spend more time with his wife,Cynthia, and his song, Julian. At one time, they had to do 32 concerts in 19days. On their next album, Beatles For Sale, the material reflected how unhappyJohn and Paul were with life on the road. Songs like Im a Loser and NoReply spoke of depression and the frenzy of life in the spotlight. John oncesaid, Its like were four freaks being wheeled out to be seen, shake our hairabout, and get back into our cage afterwards.The Beatles felt that they needed to work only in the studio now. So,on August 29, 1966, The Beatles performed their last live performance ever atCandlestick Park in San Francisco, California. Almost a year later, Brian Epstein, the Beatles Manager was found deadin his apartment of a suicidal overdose. This caused many problems for thegroup. John later admitted that The Beatles were finished when Eppy died. Iknew, deep inside me, that that was it, without him, wed had it.John met a Japanese artist name Yoko Ono in 1967. In just a few weeks,the two were inseparable. This new relationship destroyed Johns marriage withCynthia and eventually destroyed his relationship with Paul McCartney, and theother Beatles. After Johns divorce from Cynthia, John Winston Lennon changedhis name to John Ono Lennon in honor of Yoko Ono. He insisted on usingJOHNANDYOKO as his official signature and identity. John and Yoko weremarried in the year of 1969. John released his first solo single in 1969, Give Peace a Chance. Hedid not credit this song to Lennon-McCartney, but to The Plastic Ono Band.On April 10, 1970, Paul McCartney resigned from the Beatles. The groupdissolved officially in 1971. .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 , .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 .postImageUrl , .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 , .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1:hover , .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1:visited , .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1:active { border:0!important; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1:active , .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1 .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7ec8d2d12a773a928045cd27b97479a1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Sex education: problems and it's solution EssayJohn Lennon and Paul McCartney became rivals after the Beatles broke up. They were at constant competition with records. John released his Signaturesolo album: Imagine in 1971. One song on the record, entitled How do youSleep? includes the lines:The only thing you done was YesterdayAnd since youve gone youre just Another DayHow do you sleep?These lines were directed to Paul McCartney. John Lennon recorded seven albums during 1970-1975 which includedImagine1971 and Rock and Roll1975. John semi-retired from music in 1975-1980. He was raising his son, Sean,with wife, Yoko Ono. In 1980, John and Yoko released Double Fantasy. By November, theiralbum was climbing to the top of the charts. On December 8, 1980, John Lennon and Yoko Ono left their Dakotaapartment to go to the recording studio. A young man named Mark David Chapmanapproached John, wanting to get his picture taken with im. The two werephotographed together. At 10:49 p.m. that night, John and Yoko were returningfrom the studio when Chapman stepped out of the shadows and gunned down John OnoLennon at the age of 40. The world mourns the loss of John Lennon. Music and Movies

Evaluating the Internal Environment of Woolworths Australia

The internal environment of an organization consists of its available resources, inherent capabilities and competencies, and the structure of its inner systems and processes (The Internal Environment 2006, p. 126). It is absolutely necessary for business managers to commence organizational internal analysis as it assists them to understand the firm’s strengths and weaknesses.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Evaluating the Internal Environment of Woolworths Australia specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This in turn helps the company to devise suitable strategies aimed at leveraging its strength to achieve sustainable competitive advantage in the area of investment (Stahl Grigsby 1997, p. 31). This paper evaluates the internal environment of Woolworths Safeway, Australia. Resources can be described as fundamental inputs that enable a business entity to carry out its activities (The Internal Environment 2006, p . 127). In formulating a proper internal analysis, resources are divided into two – tangible and intangible. Tangible resources refer to the physical assets under the possession of a business entity. Woolworths Limited have greatly diversified its business interests into 5 broad segments that includes the supermarket division, general merchandize, consumer electronics, hotels, and wholesale division (Corporate Information 2009, para. 1). To maintain a competitive advantage, Woolworths operate under several brand names such as Safeway, Dick Smith Electronics, Tandy, Woolworths, Foodtown, among others. It has a strong physical presence in the whole of Australia and New Zealand as it operates 3,030 supermarket stores, petrol stations and hotels. The organization is sufficiently strong, having posted $37 billion in revenue in the first half of the 2009 fiscal year (Money 2009). Its intangible resources include loyalty schemes such as petrol subsidies at Caltex Woolworths, everyda y rewards, credit cards, and frequent shopper club. In human resources, Woolworths had over 180,000 employees as of 2008, a 38% increase in human capital since 1993 (Australia’s Leading 2009, para. 1). Its reputation has been greatly boosted by its logo, ‘The Fresh Food People’, which has been used for over 20 years. An internal analysis can also be done by evaluating the organization’s capabilities and core competencies. Capabilities can be defined as the organization’s capacity to deploy deliberately integrated resources aimed at achieving a desired end result (Lachowicz 2006, p. 20). Woolworths is known to offer its employees many opportunities to develop their careers, considerably reducing employee turnover (MGSM 2008, para. 2).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Furthermore, Woolworths motivates and empower employees through an expansive workers credit union known as Employees of Woolworths Association. Recently, Woolworths took measures to streamline their supply chain by contracting Kuehne + Nagel as the sole provider for the organization’s worldwide order management and freight management from crucial export regions such as Europe, North America, Asia and Africa (Kuehne 2009, para. 1 2). The contracted company has a global representation. Taking pride for its use of sophisticated business management techniques, Woolworths have also introduced latest webMethods Optimize technologies to evaluate its supply chain processes and identify grey areas in need of improvement. Earlier this year, the company implemented Workforce Optimization Software technology to improve customer service and satisfaction (James 2009, para 1). What’s more, its logo has been utilized by the company as an effective marketing strategy for over 20 years. Competences encompass all the characteristics that an organization may requ ire in order to compete favourably in the marketplace (The Internal Environment 2006, p. 129). Core competencies are the organization’s most critical sources of competitive advantage. Woolworths have several activities that it performs exemplary well in comparison to its competitors. For instance, the organization is known for its insatiable appetite of developing and nurturing nationally recognized brands. Woolworths Australia is also known for its low prices, not mentioning the fact that it offers quality products and services at major cost savings. Its home brand is the all-time largest-selling grocery brand in Australia. The company is also known for its timely delivery, quality assurance, and customer service. The SWOT analysis is a technique used to evaluate an organization and its environment. It stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT Analysis 2009, para. 1). Based on the above discussion, Woolworth’s strengths includes powerful retai l brand in Australia and beyond, outstanding reputation and brand name, value for money, diversification, committed and dedicated workforce, convenience, and high uptake of information and communication technology. Its Weaknesses includes the huge number of employees and confusion arising from trading names. Woolworths opportunities includes venturing into new markets due to the partnership between the organization and Kuehne + Nagel, more customers brought by the 360 ® Workforce Optimization software, and focus on specific markets such as hotels, liquor, petrol, and grocery stores. Being a leading organization in Australia, Woolworths will continually face the threat of stiff competition, both locally and globally. List of References Australia’s Leading Retailer Woolworths Retail Operations 2009. Viewed http://www.icmrindia.org/casestudies/catalogue/Operations/Woolworths%20Retail%20Operations%20Case%20Studies1.htm [24 September, 2009]Advertising We will write a custo m essay sample on Evaluating the Internal Environment of Woolworths Australia specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Corporate Information 2009. Woolworths Limited. Viewed http://www.corporateinformation.com/Company-Snapshot.aspx?cusip=C03653970 [24 September, 2009] James, B.T 2009. Woolworths Limited Implements Workforce Optimization Software  from Verint Witness Actionable Solutions to Support First-Class Customer Service. Viewed http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS117982+24-Mar-2009+BW20090324 [24 September, 2009] Kuehne + Nagel Manages Inbound Supply Chain for Woolworths Limited 2009. Viewed http://www.3plnews.com/3pl/kuehne-nagel-manages-inbound-supply-chain-for-woolworths-limited.html [24 September, 2009] Lachowicz, P 2006. The Internal Environment: Resources, Capabilities Core  Competencies. Viewed http://tlachowi.asp.radford.edu/MGNT428/MGNT428%20Ch03%20%20Internal%20Environment%20Lecture%20-%20Lachowicz.ppt#294,1,C hapter 3: The Internal Environment: Resources, Capabilities, and Core Competencies [24 September, 2009] Money 2009. Lowe’s Taps Australia Growth with Woolworths Venture. Viewed http://money.ninemsn.com.au/article.aspx?id=853897 [24 September, 2009] MGSM 2008. Woolworths Limited. Viewed http://www.mgsm.edu.au/wps/wcm/connect/Internet/Root/careers/students/employerdir/woolworths/ [24 September, 2009] Stahl, M.J., Grigsby, D.W 1997. Strategic Management: Total Quality and Global Competition. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN: 9781557866509Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More SWOT Analysis 2009. Viewed http://my.safaribooksonline.com/9780137148523/ch11 [24 September, 2009) The Internal Environment: A Resource-Based View of Strategy 2006. Viewed http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199288304/henry_ch05.pdf [24 September, 2009] This essay on Evaluating the Internal Environment of Woolworths Australia was written and submitted by user Kaitlyn Macias to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme Essay Example

Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme Essay Example Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme Paper Karyotyping in Genetic Counseling Programme Paper 1997). In another, clients were asked to rate counselling sessions in terms of clarity, depth of discussion and their willingness to raise issues; the ratings were examined for evidence of influence from the sex of the counsellor (Zare, 1984). However, both studies acknowledged the limitations of their approach, stressing the importance of relating such findings to qualitative analysis of the actual counselling sessions. Reported satisfaction is a questionable measure of process, since it does not necessarily relate to what actually occurred during the session. As Clarke et al. highlight, while research has focused on outcome, effectiveness is also fundamentally related to process. In their view, while outcome measures are valid in a research context, they are useless in practice, a position echoed by other commentators who argue that outcome measures used alone are both inappropriate and methodologically inadequate (Kessler, 1992). 3. Structural and Numerical Abnormalities There are two types of aberrations that karyotyping could be identified in the foetus – these are numerical and structural. Numerical aberrations depict loss or gain of chromosomes which might be one or more. The title aneuploidy has been given to such kinds of aberrations. The term trisomy expresses the occurrence of a single extra chromosome and the term polyploidy shows the occurrence of two or more chromosomes (Mosby, 2005). Structural chromosome rearrangements are considered to be the other main sort of aberration; this is an outcome of partition and reunification in a different configuration of chromosome. These aberrations also contain translocations, which includes the exchange of genetic materials among chromosomes. One of the most famous aberrations identified during the prenatal period are aneuploidies such as trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome), trisomy 18 (Edward syndrome), trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome), and X and Y sex chromosome aneuploidies (Divane, 1994). 95% of live-born chromosomal aberrations occur as a result of them (Whiteman, 1991). Chronologically occurrences of various chromosome aberrations are very difficult in composition because certain aberrations have such negative side effect that the survival chances of the foetus are significantly reduced. Statistics and facts that are gathered on the occurrence of different aberrations on certain occasions must have to be present in relation to the number of births (which are before or after birth), occasionally in comparison to the numbers of amniotic samples examined, or at other times in terms of pregnancies. . Table1. Chromosome abnormalities commonly detected their frequency and consequences (Grimshaw, 2003). Chromosome number, shape, and size form the karyotype. In spite of the fact that every karyotype is varied for each organism, every cell in every organism has the same karyotype. Chromosomal abnormalities can be separated into two categories: numeric and structural (Figure 1) (Todd, 2000). Changes in chromosome numbers result in the addition (trisomy or triploidy) or loss (monosomy or aneuploidy) of a chromosome. Between and within chromosomes structural changes could appear. Regions between chromosomes can be traded (translocation) or donated from one to the other (insertion). In the same chromosome, regions can be lost (deletion), duplicated (amplification), or reversed (inversion). It is a challenge for medical professionals to correctly identify these structural alterations and following that counsel the patients (Todd, 2000). Figure:1 Diagrammatic representation of chromosomes and their structural alteration: A) Chromosomes 3 and 8 stained with giemsa (G-banding) at a resolution of the 400 band level. Each chromosome has a short (p) and long (q) arm that is separated by a centromere at one end and a telomere at the other. Chromosomes are described as metacentric (chromosome 3) or acrocentric (chromosome 8), depending on the position of the centromere. Bands and sub-bands are numbered from the centromere outward. B) Structural aberrations involving 2 chromosomes. Illustrated is a fragment from chromosomes 3 (yellow) and 8 (blue) undergoing translocation [t (3;8)(p21-pter;p21-pter)] and insertion [ins (3;8)(q21. 2-21. 3;q13. 3-22)]. C) Structural alterations involving a single chromosome illustrated (using chromosome 3) include amplification [dup(3)(p21-pter)], inversion [inv(3)(p21-pter)], and deletion [del(3)(p21-pter)] (Todd, 2000). Figure 2: The human karyotype and aberrations. A) The normal human karyotype consists of 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Autosomes are chromosome pairs 1-22. The sex chromosomes consist of a pairing of the X and Y chromosomes (XX _ female; XY _ male). B) Each chromosome is composed of two chromatids. At the end of each chromatid is the telomere. The centromere (â€Å"clear zone†) is found in a centric or paracentric position. C) Numeric aberrations of the human karyotype appear in many diseases and syndromes. Most commonly, the change is an addition (trisomy) of loss (aneuploidy) of a chromosome. Down’s syndrome is an important example. D) Structural alterations are another important chromosomal aberration. Many types of structural alterations exist in human disease and syndromes. The Philadelphia chromosome, found in chronic myelogenous leukemia, is an important example and a major prognostic factor (Todd, 2000). 4. Methods Used in Genetic Counselling Programme 4. 1 Amniocentesis: Amniocentesis is one of several diagnostic tests that are carried out for mothers undergoing Genetic counselling. It detects the chromosome disorders that can occur in the unborn child. In this process, a sample of the fluid from the amnion is removed and then tested for disorders like Down’s syndrome, anaemia etc. This test is carried out during the 15th week of pregnancy. Amniotic fluid is used for different tests in the laboratory like karyotyping etc. However, amniocentesis increases the risk of miscarriage and therefore, this test is recommended only for women who have a high risk of chromosome abnormality. 4. 2 Conventional cytogenetics: For prenatal diagnosis the methods that are mainly used in genetic counselling are classified into two categories: Conventional Genetics and Molecular Cytogenetics (Bui, 2002). 4. 2. 1 Karyotyping In 1969 there was an expansion of karyotyping techniques for banding chromosomes, which allowed the detection of more subtle structural chromosome abnormalities. A karyotype is the exact organization (matching and alignment) of the chromosome complement of a cell. In a karyotype, chromosomes are arranged and numbered by size, from the largest to the smallest. Karyotype is the normal classification, which illustrates the normal or abnormal, constitutional or acquired chromosomal complement of an individual, tissue or cell line. To determine the numerical chromosomal abnormalities or structural rearrangements –mainly translocations- the conventional cytogenetic techniques should be used (Catalina, 2007). When full karyotype analysis is performed all the samples should be cultured enough so dividing cells are present. Then the cells are harvested, and the metaphase chromosomes are spread onto a microscope slide. The chromosomes are banded by enzyme digestion and then are analyzed by a cytogenetic expert. Advantages: Until now the gold standard for genetic tests is the conventional cytogenetic study, since it is the best one currently available for assessing the whole karyotype at one time. Moreover, it is inexpensive and detects abnormalities bigger than 3Mb in size (Catalina, 2007). Disadvantages: Only dividing cells can be assessed, there is a need for metaphase stage cells. No frozen tissue can be used. Moreover, it is a time-consuming method and due to the lack of automation in sample processing, the time needed to analyze and generate the final report is almost two weeks. Due to the difficulties of analyzing and interpreting the data, an experienced cytogenetic specialist is required (Catalina, 2007). 4. 2. 2 Molecular Cytogenetics Even though, Karyotyping remains the gold standard of chromosome analysis and still is the most frequently used genetic method in prenatal diagnosis, development of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technologies (Bui, 2002) is the most significant step in cytogenetics during the past 20 years. Moreover, over the past 30 years modifications in cytogenetic techniques have provided an opportunity to increase sensitive detection of chromosome abnormalities. The invention of FISH techniques has provided the most prominent advances in the fields of research and diagnosis. A complete dissection of complex chromosome rearrangements can be achieved by the new multicolour karyotyping techniques and also provides the prospect of identifying new recurring chromosome rearrangements. Comparatively interphase fluorescence in situ hybridization and genomic hybridization both hindered the use of metaphase chromosomes altogether and have allowed the genetic analysis of previously problematic and unidentifiable targets. New advances in comparative genomic hybridization to DNA microarrays help in achieving high resolution and automated screening for chromosomal imbalances. Rather than replacing conventional cytogenetics, these new techniques have extended the range of cytogenetic analyses when they are applied in a complementary fashion (Kearney, 2001). 4. 2. 2. 1 FISH Background: The most common practice that has been carried out in molecular cytogenetics is known as FISH. In 1988 it was first introduced in USA based clinical cytogenetics, and speedy progress has subsequently been witnessed in this field. In 1991 the first test was made in the UK. This method acquires chromosome-based probes accompanied by fluorescent labels which are attached to them; now these probes can be found in commercial kit form. Microscope systems are required for detection, which are available as basic fluorescence microscopes to advanced image analysis systems known as microscope and camera devices of cooled charged-coupled type. This test involves more effort and resources than presently practising FISH, which is a harder labour test than the existing karyotyping technique (Grimshaw, 2003). Prenatal diagnosis and FISH Test: Fluorescent In-Situ Hybridization studies have been conducted earlier on uncultured amniocytes with the acquisition of single chromosome-specific probes (for example for chromosome 21). However, these probes (centromeric repetitive or alphoid) showed vivid evidence of cross-hybridization between certain chromosomes (e. g. the two probes interacted for chromosomes 13 and 21). This finding paved the roads to the development of different types of probes (cosmid contig and YAC probes). It was successfully demonstrated that the usage of the cosmid prodes to identify Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21) in 1994, in a study of 500 uncultured amniotic fluid samples. After a couple of years, the UK introduced the use of YAC probes so to ensure speedy first reports on samples (Lowther, 1996). Although, evidence emerged which predicted that a mixture of five FISH probes could be utilised as a combined multicolour FISH hybridization experiment, when testing the five chromosomes most commonly linked with chromosomal abnormalities (21, 18, 13, X, Y). Further into that these 5-probe FISH test kits were manufactured and made available commercially (Grimshaw, 2003). Figure 3. Diagram of FISH procedures (Carpenter, 2001). A number of techniques, such as multicolour FISH (MFISH) and SKY FISH, have been developed from the FISH-based karyotyping of chromosomes. Fluorescent dyes used spectral karyotyping methods that jot together particular chromosomes regions. By utilizing a chain of specific probes each with changing quantity of dyes, unique spectral characteristics were found in different pairs of chromosomes (Catalina, 2007). There is a wide range of FISH techniques for both diagnostic and research applications. Since commercial availability of probes is increasing most clinical laboratories now use FISH as an addition to cytogenetic diagnosis. Metaphase FISH with specific gene probes provides an accurate assessment of rearrangements with a defined diagnostic or prognostic value, and interphase FISH provides the possibility of analysis on samples that would otherwise fail. One of the most significant advances has been in the development of multicolour FISH technologies which has culminated in FISH-based karyotyping methods. Metaphase CGH provides a global screening approach allowing the analysis of samples previously intractable to cytogenetic analysis. More recently, the development of CGH to DNA previously intractable to cytogenetic analysis. More recently, the development of CGH to DNA (Kearney, 2001). Advantages: FISH is a very rapid method, the results are ready within 24-48 hours. Also it is a sensitive and cost-effective and identifies both numerical and structural chromosomal abnormalities in interphase and metaphase nuclei, and permits rapid sex determination (Catalina, 2007). Limitations: However, FISH has some limitations such as cross-hybridization of non-specific fluorescence signals, non-specific background, and suboptimal signal strength. Though, small deletions, duplications and inversions cannot be identified by painting prodes (Catalina, 2007). 4. 2. 2. 2 Multicolour Whole-chromosome Painting (M-FISH AND SKY) The most prominent characteristic of FISH is its ability to simultaneously identify several targets by using variant colours (multicolour FISH). As early as 1989, as many as three targets could be visualized at the same time (Nederlof, 1989). By the early 1990s 7 ±12 different probes in different colours could be simultaneous detected (Dauwerse, 1992), (Ried, 1992). However, it was not until 1996 that developments in probe labelling and digital imaging systems allowed the visualization of the entire chromosome complement in 24 different colours (Schrock, 1996), (Speicher, 1996). The two techniques, M-FISH and SKY, both utilize DOP-PCR amplification of flow-sorted chromosomes and a ‘combinatorial’ labelling approach. The principle behind this for both M-FISH and SKY is the generation of more colours than there are fluorochromes available, by labelling with 1:1 mixtures of fluorochromes. The theoretical number of targets which can be discriminated in this way is 2n=1, where n represents the number of fluorochromes available. Using only five fluorochromes, this allows painting of the whole chromosome in twenty-four coloured complement (see Figure 5). Figure 5. M-FISH colour karyotype of a bone marrow metaphase from an AML patient. G-banding identified a balanced t(1;3)(p32;p13), and this was confirmed by M-FISH (arrows). However, M-FISH also identified a cryptic der(6)t(6;22) not visible by G-banding (arrow). Two copies of the der(6) are present in this cell (Kearney, 2001). The imaging system which is used to discriminate fluorochrome combinations is the only difference between SKY and M-FISH. M-FISH is acquiring different fluorochrome pictures for each of the five fluorochromes using specifically selected narrow band pass filter sets (Eils, 1998),(Speicher, 1996). SKY on the other hand uses a single exposure of the image and a grouping of cooled charge coupled device (CCD) imaging and Fourier transform spectrometry to analyze spectrum of the fluorochrome combinations (Schrock, 1996). Both of these methods use dedicated software to transfer the unique labelling combination for each chromosome into a pseudocolour. It is important to mention that both of them have already demonstrated hidden chromosome rearrangements in complex karyotypes such as in tumour cell lines and in haematological malignancies (Speicher, 1996), (Veldman, 1997). Disadvantages: As with other whole-chromosome painting methods, both M-FISH and SKY are not capable to detect small intrachromosomal rearrangements (inversions, deletions, duplications). Both techniques can not detect mosaic cells. In particular, the limit of resolution for telomeric rearrangements is 2 ±2. 5 Mb (Brown,2000), (Uhrig,1999). Additionally, to overcome these limitations complementary FISH approaches are required. In addition to this, latest reports state that although M-FISH and SKY have proved to be extremely useful in prenatal, postnatal, and cancer cytogenetics, these technologies have innate limitations that, in certain cases, could result in chromosomal misclassification. Most multicolour karyotyping errors have a similar mechanistic origin. Structural rearrangements, which compare non-homologous chromosome material, often come up in overlapping fluorescence at the interface of the translocated segments; called occasionally as â€Å"flaring† (Lu, 2000). This effect can obscure or alter the fluorescence pattern of adjacent chromatin, which could lead to misinterpretation (Lee, 2001). 4. 2. 2. 3 Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) CGH is a technique that presents an overview of the whole genome and allows the detection of DNA copy number changes. It is a powerful option instead of chromosome banding and FISH. This method can detect a genome screening of chromosomal differencies without previous information about genomic regions which could be a potential target. CGH is a substitute method which reveals unbalanced chromosomal changes that may happen in hESCs lines during lengthy-span cultures, especially in cases where it seems difficult to obtain high quality metaphases (Catalina, 2007). Advantages and Limitations of CGH: The obvious edge of the CGH technique is that it requires only the genomic DNA; moreover, CGH does not require prior knowledge of the genomic region of interest. CGH can also identify copy number changes, increases and losses of regions of chromosome. Though, CGH is able to identify a number of quantitative genetic alterations including duplication or deletion of single chromosome bands. The CGH analysis also indicates the presence of genetic abnormalities that are not detected by other cytogenetic or molecular approaches. The turgidity of this technique in detecting low copy number gains or losses is in between 10-20Mb, therefore the detection limit of amplification is 2Mb. However, CGH has several limitations such as inability to detect chromosomal balanced translocation, inversions, and intragenic rearrangements (Catalina, 2007). Figure 7: Comparison of cytogenetic techniques for identifying chromosomal abnormalities (Speicher, 2005) Although the advances of the techniques utilized in genetic counselling are major, all of them come with their own share of advantages and disadvantages. The same is summarized in Table 2. Quantitative fluorescent polymerase chain reaction (QF-PCR) QF-PCR combines the benefits of relative and competitive RT-PCR. It is accurate, specific, high throughput and relatively easy to execute. Real time PCR automates the lengthy relative RT-PCR process by quantitating reaction products for each sample in every cycle. RT-PCR systems detect and quantify the fluorescent reporter. The signal of this reporter increases in direct proportion to the amount of PCR product in the reaction. The reporter is a double-strand DNA which is bound to a specific dye (SYBR Green) and upon excitation emits light. If the dye is included in PCR reaction as PCR product accumulates the fluorescence increase. An alternative technique for quantifying PCR products is TaqMan, which depends on fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) of hybridization probes for quantitation. The probe hybridizes to an internal region of a PCR product. After irradiation the excited reporter dye transfers energy to the nearby quenching dye, which results in a non-fluorescent substrate. The advantages of this method are that it is inexpensive, simple to use, and sensitive The future of prenatal diagnosis: Full karyotype or molecular cytogenetics tests? The introduction of rapid molecular testing of all prenatal samples has brought up the question of the need for full karyotype analysis of all samples. When ultrasonography shows chromosomal abnormality, and there is no aneuploidy can be identified by frequent testing, full karyotyping is definitely required. However, when women have been identified by serum screening and/or maternal age as being at increased risk of Down’s syndrome they undergo persistent testing. â€Å"Double testing† of these women in a public-funded health service could be considered as unjustifiable and there are also down points for the parents. The time between the results of the rapid test and the full karyotyping could cause needless anxiety. Additionally most parents do not realize the significance of the full karyotyping; because they only worry about Down’s syndrome and not for the possibility of other abnormalities. Full karyotype analysis could identify abnormalities of unidentified importance, likewise the presence of very small â€Å"marker† chromosomes, clearly balanced chromosome rearrangements, or regions of variability, which could be hereditary. These outcomes could frequently create counselling difficulties, and cause problems for the parents in how to deduce and choose between anxiety and pregnancy termination during an ongoing pregnancy. When a chromosome rearrangement is found in one of the parents, full karyotyping is needed to test for abnormalities arising as a result of the rearrangement. However, recent advances in the policy of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis for rearrangement carriers (Scrivn, 1998) have permited rapid prenatal testing for chromosome imbalance using sub telomere probes (Pettenati, 2002). The UK National Screening Committee (UKNSC) suggested in 2004 that there is no need for karyotyping when screening for Down’s syndrome and instead prenatal diagnosis with FISH (fluorescence in-situ hybridisation) or PCR as rapid diagnostic tests as should be offered. Furthermore, UKNSC also suggested that the two previous tests should only be included for trisomies 13, 18, and 21. Before introducing the radical step of rapid testing alone for pregnancies at risk of Down’s syndrome, it is important to set up the significance and predicted effect of such a change in policy. Full karyotype results of prenatal samples from these referral categories can be audited to determine how many clinically significant chromosome abnormalities are likely to be undetected if rapid testing alone had been carried out. Recent studies which are investigativing karyotype abnormalities in prenatal samples referred for raised maternal age (RMA) or increased Down’s syndrome risk identified by serum screening will be reviewed in the following paragraph: In 1,130 prenatal samples, which were all referred for RMA or elevated risk of Down’s syndrome, an important clinical abnormality in chromosome 8 was identified (deletion of the short arm), which would not be identified by rapid testing (Thein et al). This is responsible for 0. 08% of the sample group. Thilaganathan et al. reported 3,203 amniotic fluid samples, were referred for a number of reasons. Rapid testing here did not detect all clinically significant abnormalities, which were detected with ultrasound. On another study, Ryall et al.reported 2,737 prenatal samples from pregnancies referred as serum screen +ve and an abnormality in chromosome 2 and 6 were detected. In the largest cohort study with 20,923 referrals around 30 important abnormalities were identified which includes four small marker chromosomes (Lewin et al. ). Among them, three pregnancies had trisomy 8, three trisomy 9, and three trisomy 16; and were all non-mosaic and therefore non-viable. Additionally thirteen cases of structurally abnormal chromosomes were identified, and complex abnormalities were found in four pregnancies. Rapid testing would detected as far as 99. 2% of clinical significant abnormalities, when pregnencies are reffered to RMA or serum +ve. In these studies, 196 balanced rearrangements or other good prognosis anomalies were found, which would have required parental karyotyping. This would lead to anxiety and in some cases termination of pregnancy. 5. Summary The future seems very exciting since the new developments in genetic information will present great challenges for genetic counselling. Medical doctors are currently facing problems in understanding and retaining genetic information outside their own scientific area. In some cases it is still not clear when test should be offered, since if a family is affected legal action could be used to question why an available test was not offered. Eventually, more diagnostic techniques would help to identify and treat more effectively, but not without false positives. Though, queries about which disorders to diagnose and when, (e. g. premarital, pre-conceptional, foetal, childhood, adulthood) will continue. It is important to mention that molecular cytogenetic increase the progress of prenatal diagnosis used in genetic counselling programmes to reveal chromosomal abnormality. The molecular cytogenetic techniques provide speed, accurate, ease and reliable diagnosis although there are some limitations associated with these techniques. However, if combination of the conventional techniques and molecular ones wil

Nike Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nike - Essay Example This including signing superstars like Tiger Woods, Serena Williams, etc., as brand ambassadors. 2. Nike strategies brought a new change in the market; it became an eye opener to its competitors and started a phenomenon of marketing strategies to stay alive in the market. Many companies think of 'creative' communications as being memorable for their entertainment, humor or impact, however, effective creativity must be built on a foundation that: Direct marketing prospects have time to think and choose whether or not to act. They look for reasons to reject an offer. Direct marketing makes a call to action, which aims to move the prospect beyond thinking 'that's a clever ad'. The marketer needs to determine the time of year, which is most likely to provide the best results for a campaign, and plan accordingly. Production and execution of the campaign need to be coordinated within a realistic and appropriate time frame. With busy work, family and social commitments, customers have less time to shop around for the right product, giving great appeal to the convenient buying methods offered by direct marketing or mail order. Marketers also offer personal attention and a concern for the satisfaction of individual needs, which is not always found in large retail stores. 3. There is no point running a test or strategy for something, which makes little difference, like the alteration of one word in a headline. Successful direct marketing results from careful and regular testing. The market is fluid, keep abreast of changes and alter with it. Never outlay huge sums of money on a campaign based on the results of one test alone. The actual campaign is rarely as high in response as the test. 'Depth Research' is a term used by Roman (Integrated Direct Marketing) to describe a 'depth' rather than 'breadth' approach to research. This method advocates interviewing a small, careful selection of people, using a 'well-planned, relevant questionnaire'. The Internet has made depth research easier. A well-designed on-line questionnaire with a range of geo-demographic and more open questions can enable your customers to help you understand them in an efficient and cost-effective manner. Keep in mind, though, that people often feel freer to bend the truth in online surveys and questionnaires. Making as much of the form as possible optional rather than mandatory will ensure that the only responses you get will be from people who are genuinely interested in providing you with information. Reference Charles W. L. Hill. & Gareth R. Jones. Strategic Management. "BusinessLevel Strategy and the Industry Environment (ch. 6)". Boston:Houghton Mifflin.